国外燃烧书籍Fuel and Combustion Systems Safety(2014, Wiley)

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国外燃烧书籍Fuel and Combustion Systems Safety(2014, Wiley)
1 What You Don’t Know Can Kill You 1
1.1 Knowledge Gaps in Operating Fuel Systems and Combustion
Equipment / 4
1.2 Managing Fuel Systems and Combustion Equipment Risks / 6
1.3 The Creation of Fuel Systems and Combustion Equipment Codes
and Standards / 8
1.3.1 How Codes and Standards Are Structured / 10
1.3.2 Applying Codes and Standards / 10
1.4 Fuel System Codes and Standards / 11
1.5 Combustion Equipment Codes and Standards / 12
1.6 Other Widely Recognized Code- and Standards-Related
Organizations / 13
1.6.1 Other Standards Developers and Related Industry
Organizations / 14
1.7 Safety Instrumented Systems and Safety Integrity Levels / 15
1.8 The World of Insurance and Combustion Equipment / 17
1.9 Personal Criminal Liability / 20
Notes and References / 22
v
2 Combustion Basics 23
2.1 Combustion Defined / 24
2.2 Fuels / 25
2.2.1 Fuel Properties / 26
2.3 Heat/Ignition / 29
2.4 Oxygen/Air / 29
2.5 Combustion Chemistry / 31
2.5.1 Applying Combustion Chemistry to Burner Systems / 31
2.5.2 Burner Fuel/Air Ratio Operating Conditions / 33
2.6 Environmental Emission Issues / 33
2.7 Basic Burner Design Issues / 35
2.7.1 Airflow Burners / 35
2.7.2 Nozzle Mix Burners / 36
2.7.3 Premix Burners / 36
2.8 Draft Systems / 37
2.8.1 Natural-Draft Systems / 37
2.8.2 Forced-Draft Systems / 41
2.8.3 Induced-Draft Systems / 41
2.8.4 Balanced-Draft Systems / 41
2.8.5 Draft Controls / 42
2.9 Understanding and Evaluating Flames / 42
2.9.1 Where To Look / 42
2.9.2 What To Look For / 43
2.10 Fuel/Air Ratio Evaluations / 47
2.10.1 Fuel/Air Ratio Evaluation of Closed Systems / 47
2.10.2 Fuel/Air Ratio Evaluation of Open Systems / 48
Notes and References / 51
3 Natural Gas Piping Basics 53
3.1 Natural Gas Piping Codes and Standards / 55
3.2 General Industrial Utilities Piping Fundamentals / 56
3.3 Manual Isolation Valves / 57
3.4 Blanks or Blinds / 58
3.5 Steel Pipe Joining Methods / 60
3.5.1 Welded Fittings / 60
3.5.2 Hot Taps / 61
3.5.3 Welding Certifications / 62
3.5.4 The Integrity of Welds / 62
3.5.5 Threaded Fittings / 62
3.5.6 Flanged Connections / 63
3.6 Fastener Issues: When a Bolt Is Not Simply a Bolt / 63
Notes and References / 64
vi CONTENTS
4 Gas Supply System Issues 65
4.1 Incoming Natural Gas Systems / 66
4.1.1 Gas Yards and Fuel Conditioning / 67
4.1.2 Main Shutoff or Isolation Valves / 67
4.1.3 Pig Receiver and Launcher / 67
4.1.4 Pressure Regulation and Relief / 69
4.1.5 Dew Point or Water Bath Heaters / 69
4.1.6 Particulate and Coalescing Filters / 70
4.1.7 Metering / 70
4.1.8 Odorization (an important issue) / 70
4.2 Piping Corrosion Protection / 71
4.2.1 Corrosion Concerns Where You Would Not
Expect Them / 73
4.2.2 Conducting a Gas Piping Survey / 74
4.3 Considerations for Limiting Access to Service Entrances / 77
4.4 Gas Supplies From Digesters and Landfills / 77
4.4.1 Digester Gas Supplies / 78
4.4.2 Landfill Gas Supplies / 78
4.5 Incoming Propane Service Considerations / 79
Notes and References / 80
5 Gas Piping Repairs and Cleaning 81
5.1 Key Steps to Safe Gas Piping Repairs / 82
5.2 Planning the Project / 83
5.2.1 Routine and Small-Volume Low-Pressure Venting
and Purging Projects / 83
5.2.2 Nonroutine Venting and Purging Projects / 83
5.3 Isolation / 84
5.4 Prerepair Venting and Purging of Flammable Gases / 85
5.4.1 Venting-off High-Pressure Gas / 85
5.4.2 Purge Points / 86
5.4.3 Vent Orientations and Clearances / 87
5.4.4 Ignition Sources / 87
5.4.5 Purging Processes / 88
5.5 Leak Checking and Pressure Testing / 89
5.5.1 Pneumatic Pressure Testing Versus Hydrotesting / 90
5.6 Postrepair Purge / 91
5.7 Reintroduction of Natural Gas: Startup / 91
5.7.1 The Utility or Pipeline’s Role in Gas Reintroduction / 92
5.8 Gas Sampling and Detection / 92
5.8.1 Sampling Instruments for Evaluating Gas Conditions / 92
CONTENTS vii
5.8.2 Gas Sampling Protocols / 93
5.8.3 Purge Endpoint Targets / 94
5.9 Nitrogen-Handling Issues to Consider / 95
5.9.1 Nitrogen Flow Issues / 95
5.9.2 Nitrogen Delivery Methods / 97
5.9.3 Nitrogen Gas Cylinders / 98
5.9.4 Liquid Nitrogen Cylinders / 98
5.9.5 Nitrogen Tube Trailers and Pumper Trucks / 99
5.10 The World of Gas Line Cleaning / 101
5.10.1 Piping System Sources of Contamination / 101
5.10.2 Removing Water and Vapor After Hydrotesting or
Other Water Processes / 103
5.10.3 Build It Clean / 103
5.10.4 Overview of Pneumatic Line Blowing for Cleaning / 104
5.10.5 Fuel Gas Piping Cleanliness Requirements / 108
5.10.6 Cleaning Processes Other Than Pneumatic Blowing / 108
5.11 NFPA 54: Changes Related to Purging Issues / 110
5.12 Highlights of and Commentary Regarding the New
NFPA 56 Standard / 111
Notes and References / 116
6 Understanding Fuel Trains and Combustion Equipment 117
6.1 Fuel Train Components and Their Purpose / 117
6.2 Basic Operations of Fuel Trains / 126
6.2.1 Four Key Fuel Train Safety Functions / 126
6.3 Oil Firing Systems / 138
6.3.1 Oil Ignition Systems and Burners / 140
6.4 Oven and Furnace Types / 140
6.4.1 Oven Types / 141
6.4.2 Furnace Types / 142
6.4.3 Thermal Oxidizers and Incinerators / 142
6.4.4 Process Furnaces and Fluid Heaters / 143
6.4.5 Space Heaters, Makeup Air Units, and Dryers / 144
6.4.6 Flares / 144
Notes and References / 145
7 Understanding Boilers and Their Special Risks 147
7.1 Boiler Incident Statistics / 152
7.2 Boiler Types / 153
7.2.1 Fire Tube Boilers / 154
7.2.2 Water Tube Boilers / 156
7.2.3 Steam Generators / 157
viii CONTENTS
7.2.4 Cast Iron Sectional Boilers / 159
7.2.5 Low-Water-Volume Hydronic Boilers / 159
7.3 Boiler-Water-Level Safety Devices / 160
7.3.1 Water Columns and Gage Glasses / 160
7.3.2 Gage Glass Safety/Risk Reduction Review
Considerations / 162
7.3.3 Low-Water Cutoffs / 163
7.3.4 Testing Considerations for Low-Water Cutoffs / 163
7.3.5 Standard Low-Water Cutoff Tests / 163
7.3.6 Slow Drain Test (For Low Water Cutoff Function) / 164
7.4 Boiler Pressure Safety Controls / 165
7.5 Safety Relief Valves / 165
7.5.1 Reviewing Safety Relief Valves for Hazards / 166
7.5.2 Safety Relief Valve Testing and Service / 167
7.6 Steam System Piping Special Issues / 168
7.6.1 Piping System Water Hammer / 169
7.6.2 Certifications for Welding and Repairs / 170
Notes and References / 171
8 Controlling Combustion Risks: People 173
8.1 Personnel Issues / 175
8.2 Training / 177
8.2.1 Mock Drills for Practice and Validating Knowledge
Transfer / 178
8.2.2 Licenses and Certifications / 179
8.3 Culture Changes / 179
8.4 Human Layers of Protection Analysis / 183
8.4.1 Other Factors That Influence Human Error / 191
8.5 Contractor Issues / 192
8.5.1 High-Risk Activities / 193
Notes and References / 195
9 Controlling Combustion Risks: Policies 197
9.1 Policy Commandments for Fuel and Combustion System Safety / 199
9.2 Commandment I / 199
9.3 Commandment II / 201
9.3.1 Managing Lockout/Tagout in a Plantwide Shutdown or
Turnaround / 202
9.3.2 Line-Breaking Permits / 203
9.3.3 Hot-Work Permits / 203
9.4 Commandment III / 204
CONTENTS ix
9.4.1 Frequency of Testing / 205
9.4.2 Defining Priorities and Managing Defects / 206
9.5 Commandment IV / 208
9.6 Commandment V / 208
9.7 Commandment VI / 209
9.7.1 Prestart Walk-around / 210
9.8 Commandment VII / 215
9.8.1 Creating the Training Program / 215
9.9 Commandment VIII / 217
9.10 Commandment IX / 219
9.11 Commandment X / 222
Notes and References / 224
10 Controlling Combustion Risks: Equipment 227
10.1 Controlling Equipment Risks / 229
10.1.1 Up-front Scoping Issues / 229
10.1.2 Commissioning Issues / 232
10.2 Testing of Fuel Train Safety Interlocks / 234
10.2.1 Training and Certification for Technicians / 234
10.2.2 Testing Methods / 235
10.2.3 Verifying Purge Timing / 237
10.2.4 Pressure Switches / 237
10.2.5 Airflow Switches / 240
10.2.6 Flame Detectors / 240
10.2.7 Position Switches / 244
10.2.8 Temperature Switches / 245
10.3 Rebuilt Safety Controls / 245
10.4 Valve Seat Leakage Tightness Testing / 246
10.4.1 Valve Seat Leakage Tightness Standards / 247
10.4.2 Automatic Valve Seat Leakage Testing Procedures / 248
10.4.3 Reducing the Risk of Automatic Valve Seat
Leakage / 250
10.4.4 Manual Isolation Valve Leakage Testing / 251
10.4.5 Lubricated Plug Valve Maintenance Issues / 251
10.5 Refractory and Equipment Outer Skin Problems / 253
Notes and References / 253
11 Global Perspective on Fuel and Combustion System Risks 255
11.1 Global Perspectives on Fuel and Combustion System Risks / 256
11.2 Highlights of the European Combustion World / 257
11.2.1 Popular EN Industrial Standards / 257
x CONTENTS
11.2.2 Other Important Fuel and Combustion System Standards
Organizations / 258
11.3 Fuel System Risks in Other Countries / 259
11.3.1 Keeping Things Simple / 259
11.3.2 Design Issues to Minimize Developing Country Risks / 262
11.3.3 Training: The Missing Link for Controlling
Developing Country Risks / 262
11.4 Differences in Types of Systems and Equipment From U.S. to
Foreign Operations / 263
11.5 Fuel Issues / 265
11.5.1 Fuel Oil Contamination / 265
11.5.2 Propane (LPG) Combustion System Concerns / 266
Notes and References / 266
12 Business Contingency Planning 269
12.1 Business Interruptions From Fuel and Combustion Systems / 271
12.1.1 Outages and Incident Action Plan Items / 271
12.2 Sparing Philosophies for Components / 276
12.3 Flood and Water Damage / 277
12.3.1 Preevent Design and Installation Issues / 278
12.3.2 Postevent Dryout and Recommissioning Issues / 280
12.4 When There is an Incident / 283
12.4.1 Investigation Issues / 283
12.5 Conclusion / 285
12.5.1 Key Items to Implement Immediately / 285
Notes and References / 286
Appendix: Analysis of Real-Life Stories

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